Commitment
	Integrity
	Leadership
	Communication
	Active Listening
	Fostering Discussion
	Facilitation
	Organization
	Setting Ground Rules
	Decision Making
	Structuring Meetings
	Keeping Records

Numerous reports and case studies of partnership groups have attempted to identify factors which differentiate successful efforts from failures. These factors are grouped here into three general categories: commitment--members' integrity and leadership qualities; communication--discussion, listening, and facilitation; and organization--setting ground rules for communication, decision-making, meeting structure, and record-keeping.

Quick Reference to Section:

Commitment
Communication
Organization

Commitment

"A partnership isn't so much about issues as it is about relationships" (partnership group participant).

Partnerships typically bring adversarial partners together to deal with contentious issues. Overcoming differences and working toward a common goal requires an inordinate commitment of time and effort on the part of all participants. A successful partnership demands integrity--honesty, openness, and respect--from all group members.

Integrity

"He influenced me a lot--because of his amount of honesty and willingness to communicate and understand. He really worked very hard at it, and that impresses me" (partnership group participant, discussing another participant).

Member integrity is essentially a personal value, and is therefore difficult to define. However, the following list can help members evaluate their own and others' performance.

Traits of a partnership member with integrity:

	is respectful of others
	listens and learns
	is willing to expose own vulnerability and weaknesses
	is willing to set and follow rules
	considers new ideas and approaches
	has sincere concern for the issue(s)
	commits time and resources to the partnership
	sticks it out over the long haul
	is a team player

In addition, many partnership groups find it useful to develop ethical guidelines or rules to guide member interactions. Some examples are provided in the following list.

Sample ethical guidelines developed by partnership groups:

	express intentions and agendas honestly and openly
	respect the views and interests of the others
	do not make disparaging remarks about others, organizations, or the meeting itself
	listen to others--especially those most opposed to you
	avoid side conversations
	selective distribution of materials and side conversations are unacceptable
	group materials are open to anyone, whether or not they are group members
	be specific from the start about your objectives--do not create false expectations
	be committed to the success of the program
	do what you say you will do
	express needs, not positions
	encourage involvement in the partnership

Sample Exercise: stereotypes

Use this exercise to identify and examine preconceptions and misunderstandings between interests and organizations:

1. Break the group into smaller groups of like-minded individuals, such as environmentalists, ranchers, recreationists, and natural resource professionals.
2. Have each small group define a typical stereotype for each group, including its own.
3. Have each small group report back to the whole group.
4. Mediator or facilitator leads discussion as to why stereotypes tend to reflect worst possible expectations.
5. Again, have the group break out into the smaller groups.
6. Have each group recreate a stereotype for itself based on how the members would like to be perceived--a best possible stereotype.
7. Reconvene larger group and again, each small group reports its ideas.
8. Facilitator or mediator leads group discussion on reprogramming stereotypes.

(Source: Adapted from Mary H. Peterson, Building Consensus by Improving Listening Skills, reprinted in: Coordinated Resource Management Guidelines).

Leadership

"One person can make a huge difference to the success or failure of a partnership. An individual with a strong attachment to a land area or river basin, for example, can inspire enthusiasm in others. A charismatic individual, particularly effective core group, or committed agency can see a group through frustrating times."

A leader is an organization or individual who motivates, inspires creativity, stimulates interest, and may act as an information source or facilitate discussion. A group may have one or a few leaders. Shared or rotating leadership is also an option. In addition to enthusiastic and trustworthy members, good leadership is crucial to partnership success.

Traits of a good leader:

	values diversity
	is sensitive to individual needs
	encourages participation in and commitment to the group
	recognizes and praises individual contribution
	promotes partnership vision and goals
	celebrates accomplishments
	encourages others to accept responsibilities
	shares credit with others
	is able to relinquish control when necessary
	has good communication and group interaction skills
	tries to see all sides
	is flexible, creative--looks for opportunities to experiment
	learns from mistakes
	is respected by group members--considered fair and knowledgeable
	helps group develop vision and goals
	organizes and aligns people toward group vision
	ensures that administrative tasks are seen to

Many partnership groups stress that leadership should be focused at the community or grassroots level, not state or federal, because local leadership: (1) is more acceptable to landowners; (2) ensures that local economic stability is not neglected when addressing ecological issues; and (3) engenders more trust in community than outside interests. Therefore, it can be very beneficial to encourage the emergence of local "champions," who are much more likely to motivate and inspire trust within the community than are outsiders. For similar reasons, it may be desirable to look to the private sector for leadership. Leadership may not be an appropriate role for government officials or agencies.

Communication

Communication is the cornerstone of all partnerships, and often the variable which determines their success or failure. Effective communication builds trust and mutual respect and facilitates learning. Although communication is frequently thought of in terms of written or oral dialogue, actions are also important forms of communication and indicate commitment to stated agreements. The following sections offer guidelines for active listening, identifying participant expectations, fostering discussion, and facilitation.

Active listening

"Everyone has something to learn, and everyone has something to teach." (partnership group participant)

Listening is as important a part of communication as speaking. All participants should review the following guidelines for active listening:

	stop talking and concentrate on what is being said
	maintain eye contact
	maintain a relaxed stance
	review and summarize what has been said
	ask for clarification
	ask open-ended questions (e.g., why? how?)
	don't interrupt or change the subject
	don't concoct retorts or arguments in your head
	avoid jumping to conclusions
	try not to get defensive

Sample Exercise: identifying participant expectations

Try the following exercise during the early stages of partnership development to identify participants' expectations of the group process:

1. Give everyone a 3x5 card, and have them complete the following sentence, "What I want most from this process is..."
2. Collect cards and redistribute them (rule: Participant should not get own card).
3. Each person reads the card he or she has received and interprets it. At this point, the author can add comments.
4. As a group, discuss expectations.

(Source: Adapted from Coordinated Resource Management Guidelines).

Fostering discussion

"To keep from rehashing material and to move discussion along, we use an informal voting system to determine whether there is group agreement. This focuses the discussion on problems and keeps people from 'talking an issue to death'" (partnership group participant).

Why people hate meetings:

1. Unclear Roles. Participants aer unsure what they are supposed to be doing.
2. Cheap Shots. Personal attacks on an individual's character instead of his/her ideas.
3. Information Overload. An overabundance of data, facts, and figures can be confusing.
4. Wheel-Spinning. Going over the same thing again and again.
5. Unclear Expectations. Different understandings among participants on the reason for and outcome of the meeting.
6. Poor Meeting Environment. Space is too hot, too cold, too big, or too small.
7. Unclear Decisionmaking Authority. Participants have no power and just rubber-stamp decisions.
8. Cacophony. Everyone going off in different directions and not listening to each other.

(Source: Citizen Forestry Support System, 1996, Building Effective Partnerships for City Trees).

Constructive discussion doesn't just happen--it has to be cultivated. One of the first tasks of any partnership group is to reach group agreement on the nature of discussion.

Tips for constructive group discussion in meetings:

	always have a concrete agenda for meetings, and use it
	arrange tables and chairs so everyone is included and facing one another
	remove physical barriers between people
	allow each participant to talk uninterrupted for a set period of time about his or her thoughts and feelings regarding the issue at hand
	use direct, face-to-face, interactive dialogue
	ask questions
	keep discussion focused on a single subject; stay on track
	periodically summarize the discussion
	frequently check for group consensus on issues, decisions
	use flip charts or an overhead projector to display ideas and decisions
	provide refreshments
	use a facilitator to guide discussion

Discussion takes time--more than you would think! Plan time for people to learn about each other, overcome differences, and begin to "speak the same language." Then allow more time for people to resolve problems and disagreements.

If necessary (and it usually will be), identify a process to collect, distribute, and review information and data so that all participants are equally informed.

Outside of group settings, maintain discussion through other communication forums. Tap into existing networks, such as the media, but also develop new channels of communication. It is important to have informal as well as formal communication links. Examples of communication forums include the media, newsletters and other mailings, telephone trees, workshops, secret votes, polls, potluck dinners, picnics, and field trips.

Suggestion: Repeatedly poll participants, through phone calls, questionnaires, and in-meeting discussions as to their feelings about the partnership's direction, activities, and continuance.

Facilitation

"We need a referee!" (partnership group participant).

Most partnership groups find they benefit from--or even require--a trained facilitator. A good facilitator will be able to make sure everyone has a chance to speak, refocus hostile communication into more constructive dialogue, help clarify points and issues, encourage creativity, and help generate solutions. Professional facilitators can be found at universities, at Cooperative Extension offices, and through private organizations that specialize in conflict mediation and facilitation. The following nine points are suggestions for facilitators, and may also be used by other participants to gauge a facilitator's effectiveness.

1. Maintain neutrality.

	have no interest in outcome of the process
	have no affiliation with organizations that do have an interest in the outcome of the process
	be viewed as neutral by all group members
	express no preference for any of the opinions or ideas presented

2. Keep meeting focused.

	keep meetings on track and on time
	review rules and make sure everyone understands them
	stick to agenda topics
	present one idea at a time
	be clear and explicit
	point out when discussion has drifted and re-state the original topic under discussion
	check for group understanding and acceptance of previous discussion or decisions before proceeding

3. Use active listening techniques.

	maintain eye contact with members when speaking
	summarize/paraphrase/clarify participants' contributions
	relate one participant's idea to another's
	accept incomplete ideas and ask for further development
	when time limitations require that someone be cut off, point it out and ask them to complete their thought

4. Acknowledge feelings and behavior.

	acknowledge expressed emotions as valid communication
	summarize feelings expressed as well as content of statements
	reflect on overall group behavior
	if behaviors are ambiguous, ask for verbal verification or explanation
	encourage group as a whole to discuss acceptable behavior
	be aware of participant concerns and interests
	be sensitive to different modes of participation
	be on the look-out for hidden agendas

5. State a problem in a constructive way.

	state problems, not solutions
	let the group work on solutions
	help clarify areas of decision-making, such as legislative limits

6. Suggest a procedure or problem-solving approach.

	point out when it may be useful to move on to the next problem
	use a variety of procedures, such as break-out groups, brainstorming, straw voting, nominal group process, and integrative decision-making

7. Summarize and clarify discussions.

	look for common ground, shared values, and shared experiences
	acknowledge and accept differences in perceptions and opinions
	ask for group feedback: Is the summary clear? Do participants agree with the summary?

8. Behaviors to avoid.

	judging or criticizing ideas or values of others
	projecting own ideas and using role to argue for them
	making procedural decisions for the meeting without consulting participants
	lengthy comments

9. Behaviors to cultivate.

	give praise
	intervene when necessary
	prevent power plays
	create "fair play" atmosphere
	maintain a positive attitude
	treat everyone equally
	show respect for others' opinions
	be responsive to emotions

(Source: Adapted from Coordinated Resource Management Guidelines)
 

Organization

While rigid rule structures are anathema to some people, they frequently help partnership groups overcome stumbling blocks such as legislation restricting agency involvement and limited funding opportunities. Organizational structure, when agreed upon by all participants, facilitates communication and engenders trust.

On the other hand, partnership groups must balance the need for organizational structure with the group's need to be flexible, change, and grow. To this end, a group should remain open to alternative means of organizing and accomplishing tasks. Keep abreast of and be able to adapt to community trends, other environmental changes, and individual members' needs and interests. Continuously review and revise organizational structure and rules.

Aspects of organization discussed below include setting ground rules, decision-making, structuring meetings, and keeping records.

Setting ground rules

Having clearly set rules of operation will facilitate communication and give members trust in the partnership. It is preferable to put operating procedures in writing and have all members ratify them. Make sure that the rules and procedures developed by the group promote shared ownership in the process and its outcomes. Develop mechanisms that will include all stakeholders, not just recognized leaders.

Discuss and agree upon rules for the following topics:

	meeting attendance and participation
	structure of discussions
	confidentiality
	constructive feedback
	expected contributions
	division of labor
	delegation of responsibility
	relationship to other groups
	timeline or deadline for decision-making
	procedures for talking with the media
	partnership's authority vis-a-vis other groups and individuals
	decision-making rules
	unacceptable behaviors

 

Decision-making

"One of our rules was if you wanted to be a part of the group and have an interaction, you had to be vested in the group. That meant you had to attend meetings. If you missed meetings, that meant you didn't have a right to be part of the consensus-making group. So you couldn't just come into any particular meeting and blow the process out of the water" (partnership group participant).

Before defining decision-making rules, first ascertain extent of the partnership's decision-making authority. What are the legal limitations? Can local regulations effectively control development? What changes need to be made to empower the partnership? To what extent do participants have authority to make decisions for the agency or organization they represent?

Next, agree upon and clearly define a decision-making mechanism, such as consensus or voting. Discuss the need to establish a steering committee or other decision-making body. Discuss the decision-making role of advisory groups, new members, etc. To ensure full support in the implementation stage, choose a decision-making process that involves all partnership members.

Many partnership groups operate by consensus decision-making. Consensus may be defined as unanimous agreement among each of the individual participants, or agreement among designated interest representatives--as in a steering group, or agreement of caucuses or coalitions. Alternatively, some groups define consensus as the lack of objection by any member. In either case, consensus decision-making ensures that no participant finds the decision unacceptable, and therefore no participant can later disagree with that decision. For this reason, many partnership groups insist upon decision-making by consensus.

On the other hand, consensus means that each member has veto rights over any decision. Strict adherence to consensus as a decision-making process can significantly slow down decision-making. It is advisable that partnership groups using consensus decision-making agree upon an alternative decision-making method to be used in cases where a decision must be made and the group is at an impasse. Also bear in mind that consensus works best in small groups (fewer than 15 people).

Sample decision-making rules:

	council suggests and votes on future meeting topics--observers at meetings can ask questions but cannot present topics unless agreed upon by the council
	agency representatives must have the authority to make decisions for their agencies
	new members must attend at least four consecutive meetings before they can participate in decision-making
	members who miss two or more consecutive meetings lose their voting rights
	decisions are made by secret vote to avoid intimidation of minority opinions

Structuring meetings

The purpose of structuring meetings is to encourage communication and keep it focused on agenda items.

Tips from partnership groups:

	identify a convenient time and location for meetings
	choose a neutral site
	always have a concrete agenda for meetings, and use it
	send out agenda before the meeting--let people know what to expect
	arrange tables and chairs so everyone is included and facing one another
	remove physical barriers between people
	respect participants' time: always start and end meetings on schedule
	keep agenda discussion items spaced so participant interest level remains high--use breaks, small group discussions, and planned activities
	take minutes--be sure to record all concerns voiced and group decisions
	periodically summarize discussion and monitor progress
	provide refreshments

The following sample agenda lists basic steps in the meeting process and suggestions for achieving them.

Sample meeting agenda:

1. Participant introductions. Suggestion: Let participants introduce themselves--this promotes trust and teamwork.
2. Review goals of planning process and purpose of meeting. Suggestion: Establish ground rules, record them, and post them at each meeting.
3. Establish an agreed-upon agenda. Suggestions: Ask for proposed revisions of agenda and set time limits for individual agenda items.
4. Review meeting process. Suggestion: Make sure that participants are aware of their roles and functions as well as the facilitator's role and functions.
5. Initiate discussion on agenda topics. Suggestion: Keep discussions centered on the objective of the meeting and the major aim of the planning process.
6. Record discussion. Suggestions: Accept and include everyone's contributions. Use flip charts to record meeting notes and post them visibly. Flip charts keep contributions very visible to help people keep track of suggestions.
7. Check for group agreement on discussion. Suggestion: Consider using a secret vote to get accurate opinions.
8. Closure. Suggestion: Summarize meeting highlights before closing and list items to be covered in next meeting.
9. Follow-up. Suggestion: Between meetings, send brief report of minutes and ask for feedback/concurrence.

Keeping records

"I don't see how you're going to have anything effective if you have a different group that shows up every time and no one is bound by, or even remembers, what was said the last time" (partnership group participant).

Keeping a written record of partnership activities and decisions is crucial. Written records encourage observance of partnership rules, goals, objectives, and decisions. Minutes of meetings and news releases keep people informed and establish a broader partnership network. Written records are also useful to document, publicize, and celebrate the group's achievements. Documentation makes it easier to obtain funding, is useful for creating information statements, and simplifies news releases.

Written materials can be used to bring new partners up to speed quickly, and provide important institutional memory for the partnership. Institutional memory is important because partnership groups can last for years but tend to mutate rapidly--as people quit, new people take over, focus changes, funding dries up or becomes available, and agency representatives get transferred.

It is a good idea to keep a group library with records of group rules, vision statement, goals, and objectives. Maps and technical data may also be included in the group library to ensure that they are available to all group members.